Understanding Construction Defects: Types, Impacts, and Cases

In this comprehensive article, readers will learn about construction defects and gain a deeper understanding of their causes, types, and impacts on structures. The article delves into various methods of identifying and assessing construction defects, including visual inspections and both non-destructive and destructive testing. It further discusses prevention strategies and the importance of quality control, material selection, planning, and effective communication.

Legal and contractual issues surrounding construction defects are also explored, including claims, warranties, liabilities, insurance, and alternative dispute resolution methods. The article provides guidance on remediation and repair, as well as case studies and lessons learned from notable instances of construction defects.

Overview of Construction Defects

Construction defects can severely impact the quality, safety, and longevity of a building or structure. Being aware of and understanding construction defects is vital for property owners, contractors, architects, and other professionals in the construction industry.

What Are Construction Defects?

Construction defects are flaws or deficiencies in the design, materials, or workmanship of a building or structure that lead to its failure to perform its intended function or meet the required standards. These damages can manifest during the construction process or after the project’s completion, often resulting in reduced functionality, diminished property value, and potential safety hazards.

Construction defects can be categorized into two main types:

1. Patent defects: These are visible or apparent defects that can be identified during a routine inspection of the construction work. Examples include improper installation of windows, doors, or roof systems, visible cracks in walls or foundations, and sloping floors.

2. Latent defects: These are hidden or concealed defects that are not readily observable during normal construction inspections. Latent defects often take years to become apparent and may cause significant damage before being discovered. Examples include water intrusion issues, inadequate fire protection systems, and structural defects within walls or foundation.

Common Types of Construction Defects

Some of the most common types of construction defects include:

1. Design deficiencies: These defects are the result of errors or omissions in the architectural or engineering design of the project, leading to structural instability, inadequate performance of building systems, or non-compliance with building codes.

2. Material defects: These defects are caused by the use of inferior or substandard materials, which can lead to premature deterioration, reduced functionality, or safety hazards.

3. Workmanship defects: These defects arise from poor construction practices or non-compliance with established industry standards, resulting in a failure to meet the project’s specifications or construction requirements.

4. Water intrusion and moisture issues: These defects relate to the improper installation of waterproofing materials or systems, which can cause water damage, mold growth, and structural deterioration.

5. Foundation and structural defects: These defects involve inadequate or faulty design or construction of the building’s foundation or structural systems, leading to settlement, movement, or instability.

Causes of Construction Defects

The root causes of construction defects can vary, but some of the most common factors contributing to defects include:

1. Inadequate construction supervision: Lack of proper oversight during the construction process can lead to errors, omissions, and poor workmanship.

2. Inadequate design documentation: Poorly detailed or incomplete design documents may create confusion, misinterpretation, or omission of critical construction elements, leading to defects.

3. Inferior materials or products: The use of low-quality materials may result in premature failure or reduced functionality of building components.

4. Insufficient quality control: The absence of proper quality control measures during the construction process may allow defects to go unnoticed or unresolved.

5. Inadequate communication among the construction team: Poor communication and coordination between contractors, subcontractors, architects, and engineers can contribute to defects by creating misunderstandings, misinterpretations, or conflicting instructions.

Impact of Construction Defects on Structures

The implications of construction defects can be significant and far-reaching, some of which include:

1. Safety hazards: Defects can present serious safety risks for occupants, such as the collapse of structures, fire hazards, electrical issues, and exposure to harmful substances like mold or asbestos.

2. Reduced property value: Structural defects, water intrusion issues, or other construction problems can adversely affect a property’s market value and desirability.

3. Legal liability: Property owners, architects, contractors, and other parties involved in the construction process may be held legally responsible for damages caused by construction defects.

4. Repair and remediation costs: Addressing construction defects can be costly, particularly when defects are discovered after the project’s completion. In addition to the financial burden of repairs, there is often the inconvenience and disruption of having to vacate the premises during remediation.

5. Loss of reputation: Construction defects can also impact the reputation of architects, contractors, and other professionals involved in the project, potentially limiting future business opportunities.

In summary, understanding the different types of construction defects, their causes, and their impact on structures is important for industry professionals in order to minimize their occurrence and provide safe, high-quality structures for occupants. Proper planning, attention to detail, and adherence to industry standards and best practices are essential in mitigating the risks associated with construction defects.

Identification and Assessment of Construction Defects

Construction defects can have detrimental consequences for the safety, functionality, and overall value of a building. Identifying and assessing these defects is essential for determining the best course of action for repair and preventing further damage. This article will cover a variety of methods for inspecting and evaluating construction flaws, including visual inspections, non-destructive testing, destructive testing, and assessing the severity and extent of defects.

Visual Inspections

Visual inspections are the most straightforward and least invasive method for identifying construction defects. These inspections involve examining the building’s interior and exterior to detect visible signs of damage or faulty workmanship. Some common indicators of construction defects include cracks in walls, uneven surfaces, misaligned building components, water intrusion, and efflorescence.

During a visual inspection, it is crucial to pay attention to the building’s architectural and structural elements, the quality of construction materials used, and any signs of water damage or mold. It is also important to consider how the building is functioning as a whole, including evaluating the performance of mechanical, electrical, and plumbing systems.

Visual inspections have some limitations, as they rely solely on the inspector’s ability to detect visual indicators of construction defects. Some defects may not be visible to the naked eye or may remain hidden within the building’s structure, necessitating more in-depth inspection methods.

Non-destructive Testing Methods

Non-destructive testing (NDT) methods involve examining a building’s structural integrity and the quality of construction materials without damaging or significantly altering the structure. NDT often complements visual inspections when defects are suspected but cannot be confirmed through visual inspection alone. Some common NDT methods include:

1. Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR): GPR is a geophysical method that uses high-frequency electromagnetic waves to create a subsurface image of the structure. This technology can be quite helpful in detecting voids, reinforcing bars, and concrete deterioration within walls, slabs, and other structural elements.

2. Infrared Thermography: This method utilizes thermographic cameras to detect temperature changes in building materials, which may indicate water intrusion, air leakage, or thermal inefficiency.

3. Ultrasonic Testing: Ultrasonic waves are sent through a material to detect cracks, voids, or other subsurface defects that may not be visible on the surface.

4. X-Ray Diffraction: This technique is used to identify the composition of construction materials and detect material-related defects, such as improper curing, incorrect material ratios or insufficient compaction in concrete.

Destructive Testing Methods

Destructive testing involves taking samples from the building structure or its components to evaluate the quality and condition of materials used in construction. Although destructive testing can provide the most accurate information about construction defects, it can cause damage to the structure, making it a less preferred method.

Some common destructive testing methods include:

1. Core Drilling: This process involves extracting a small cylindrical sample of concrete to inspect for signs of premature deterioration or substandard construction materials.

2. Pull-Out Test: The pull-out test evaluates the strength and quality of a construction material by applying a controlled force and measuring the resistance exhibited.

3. Schmidt Hammer Test: This method uses a specially designed hammer to evaluate the surface hardness of a concrete surface, which can provide a rough estimate of the overall compressive strength of the material.

Assessing the Severity and Extent of Defects

Once construction defects have been identified, it’s necessary to assess their severity and extent to determine the appropriate course of action for repair. Factors to consider in this evaluation include:

1. Root Cause Analysis: Understanding the underlying cause of a defect will enable targeted and efficient remediation strategies.

2. Extent of Damage: Assessing the affected areas and components in the structure, including any secondary damage, is crucial to understanding the overall impact of a defect and determining the best course of action for repair.

3. Repairability: Some defects may be repairable, while others may require extensive reconstruction or even demolition of the affected area. Understanding the feasibility and cost of repairs can help in making well-informed decisions on how to move forward.

4. Prioritization: Assessing the urgency and severity of defects will aid in determining the order in which they should be addressed. Critical defects that pose a significant risk to the building’s occupants or structural integrity should be prioritized over less severe issues.

By combining various inspection methods, construction professionals can identify and assess defects with greater accuracy and make informed decisions regarding necessary repairs, ensuring the longevity and functionality of a building.

Prevention of Construction Defects

The prevention of construction defects is essential for ensuring the structural integrity, safety, and durability of a built environment. A proactive approach to defect prevention can significantly reduce the cost of remediation, liability claims, and negative impacts on project timelines. There are several strategies for preventing construction defects, including quality control and assurance, material selection and handling, proper design and planning, construction supervision and monitoring, and effective communication and coordination.

Quality Control and Quality Assurance

Quality control (QC) and quality assurance (QA) are essential for preventing construction defects. QC involves regular inspections, testing, and documentation of the work on a project to ensure it meets specified standards of material, workmanship, and construction methods. Effective QC measures can help identify deviations from predetermined quality requirements and initiate corrective actions to prevent defects.

On the other hand, QA refers to the overall management and control systems used to ensure that a project consistently meets its specified quality requirements. This includes defining quality standards, selecting appropriate construction methods, procuring appropriate materials, and training and certifying personnel involved in construction activities. The implementation of rigorous QA measures can help prevent construction defects by ensuring that everyone involved in the construction processes understands their respective responsibilities and follows established procedures.

Material Selection and Handling

The appropriate selection and handling of construction materials play a crucial role in the prevention of construction defects. It is essential to choose materials that are fit for their intended purpose and comply with relevant standards, specifications, and codes. When procuring construction materials, contractors should prioritize suppliers with proven quality records and maintain a rigorous inspection and testing regime.

Handling of materials on the construction site should also follow best practices, including proper storage, protection from exposure to extreme conditions, and ensuring that materials are not damaged during transport or handling. Properly managing and protecting materials can help prevent construction defects by minimizing their exposure to potential damage, thus ensuring that their performance characteristics are not compromised.

Proper Design and Planning

Effective design and planning are integral to the prevention of construction defects. Design professionals must have a comprehensive understanding of the materials, systems, and methods that will be employed during construction and must ensure that they are compatible and suited for their intended application. Detailed design documents and specifications should be developed, and adequate coordination between design disciplines is essential to minimize conflicts and inconsistencies that might lead to construction defects.

In addition, thorough construction planning should be undertaken, considering critical factors such as project phasing, sequencing of construction activities, site logistical constraints, and weather conditions to minimize the risk of construction defects. Effective planning can help prevent defects by ensuring that all aspects of the project are thoughtfully considered and appropriately executed.

Construction Supervision and Monitoring

Construction supervision and monitoring are crucial for preventing construction defects by ensuring that work is carried out in accordance with design specifications, applicable standards, and codes of practice. Supervising engineers or site managers should be knowledgeable in construction techniques, material properties, and quality control procedures to identify and correct potential deficiencies during construction.

Regular site inspections and progress meetings can help to track the quality and conformance of ongoing work and provide feedback to all team members. This feedback loop enables teams to make real-time corrections and take proactive measures to mitigate potential construction defects.

Effective Communication and Coordination

Lastly, effective communication and coordination among project stakeholders, including clients, design professionals, contractors, and subcontractors, are imperative to prevent construction defects. A collaborative approach allows for the sharing of ideas, concerns, and expertise, leading to better decision-making and improved project outcomes.

Creating a structured communication plan and fostering a positive working environment can help build trust, effectively manage expectations, and ensure that everyone works together to achieve project objectives.

In summary, preventing construction defects requires a multifaceted approach that includes diligent quality control and assurance, careful material selection and handling, thorough design and planning, attentive construction supervision and monitoring, and effective communication and coordination among all project stakeholders. Employing these strategies throughout the construction process can significantly minimize the risk of defects, ensuring the longevity, safety, and success of a built environment.

Legal and Contractual Issues Surrounding Construction Defects

Construction defects are problems that compromise the integrity, safety, or functionality of a building or structure. These defects can lead to significant damages and costly repairs, and they often give rise to disputes between owners, contractors, and other parties involved in the construction process. Understanding the legal and contractual issues surrounding construction defects is essential for resolving disputes and mitigating risks.

Construction Defect Claims

Construction defect claims typically arise when a property owner or developer discovers that a building or structure is not up to industry standards or is otherwise unsuitable for its intended use. The basis for a construction defect claim can include a variety of issues, including poor workmanship, faulty materials, design errors, or failure to comply with applicable codes and regulations.

There are several legal theories that may be asserted in construction defect claims, including breach of contract, negligence, strict liability, and warranty claims. Each of these theories has its own requirements and limitations, and the appropriate theory or combination of theories will depend on the specifics of the case.

Breach of contract claims typically arise when one party alleges that the other party failed to perform according to the terms of a written or verbal agreement. In a construction defect case, this may involve a claim that the contractor failed to build the structure according to specified plans and specifications or that the developer failed to deliver a building that was fit for its intended purpose.

Negligence claims involve allegations that a party failed to exercise reasonable care in performing its duties, resulting in damages or injury. In a construction defect case, this can result from a party’s failure to adhere to industry standards, failure to procure proper permits, or failure to supervise or inspect the work being performed.

Strict liability claims focus on the condition of the product rather than the conduct of the parties. In construction defect cases, strict liability typically applies to manufacturers of defective products, such as faulty materials or appliances, that cause damage when they are integrated into the completed structure.

Warranty claims are based on express or implied promises made by a party regarding the quality, performance, or condition of a building or its components. These warranties can include promises made in a contract, as well as statutory warranties implied by law. In either case, a breach of warranty claim can arise when a building fails to meet the promised level of quality or performance.

Warranties, Guarantees, and Liabilities

Warranties and guarantees are important contractual mechanisms for allocating risk and responsibility in construction projects. A warranty is a promise by a party that a product or service will meet certain specifications or standards, while a guarantee is a commitment by a party to take responsibility for the performance of another party or the quality of a product.

In the context of construction defects, warranties and guarantees can help to clarify the rights and obligations of the various parties involved in the project, including owners, contractors, designers, and manufacturers. These provisions can help to allocate liability for defects and provide a basis for resolving disputes.

However, it is important to note that regulatory requirements, such as building codes and safety standards, can impose additional obligations on parties involved in construction projects, regardless of the terms of their agreements. These legal obligations can result in liability for parties who fail to comply with applicable requirements, even if their contracts do not specifically address such issues.

Role of Insurance in Covering Construction Defects

Insurance can play a crucial role in managing the financial risks associated with construction defects. Coverage for construction defects is typically provided under a contractor’s commercial general liability (CGL) policy, which can provide coverage for property damage and bodily injury resulting from a construction defect.

Coverage for construction defects can vary depending on the specific policy and the applicable state laws. Some policies may provide coverage for risks such as defective workmanship, faulty materials, or design errors, while others may exclude these risks or provide limited coverage for certain time periods.

It is essential for contractors, owners, and other stakeholders to carefully review their insurance policies to understand the scope of coverage and any potential exclusions or limitations. It is also important to consider purchasing additional endorsements or separate insurance policies, such as professional liability or builder’s risk insurance, to fill in any gaps in coverage.

Alternative Dispute Resolution Methods

Given the complex legal and contractual issues involved in construction defect cases, alternative dispute resolution (ADR) methods can be a useful tool for resolving disputes between parties without the need for lengthy and costly litigation.

Arbitration and mediation are two common ADR methods. Arbitration involves a neutral third party making a binding decision on the dispute after hearing evidence and arguments from both parties. Mediation, on the other hand, involves a neutral third party facilitating negotiations between the parties to help them reach a voluntary settlement.

ADR methods can offer several advantages over traditional litigation, including reduced costs, faster resolution of disputes, and more control over the process and outcome for the parties involved. Many construction contracts include ADR clauses, which require the parties to attempt to resolve disputes through these methods before resorting to litigation.

Remediation and Repair of Construction Defects

Remediation and repair of construction defects are vital processes in the construction industry to ensure the safety, functionality, and longevity of a building. Construction defects can cause various issues, ranging from minor aesthetic concerns to severe structural problems. This article will discuss the development of a remediation plan, methods for repairing construction defects, cost estimation and budgeting for repairs, and monitoring and maintenance after repairs.

Developing a Remediation Plan

Developing a remediation plan is the first step in addressing construction defects. This process involves identifying the issue, determining the root cause, and developing an appropriate strategy for repair. The following steps can be followed to create an effective remediation plan:

1. Inspection: Conduct a thorough inspection of the property to identify any construction defects. This may involve using visual inspections, non-destructive testing methods, or other techniques to detect problems in the building.

2. Documentation: Create a detailed record of the defects, including photographs, measurements, and other necessary information. This documentation will be crucial in supporting any claims for repair or compensation.

3. Root Cause Analysis: Investigate the construction defect to determine its underlying cause. This could involve reviewing construction documents, interviewing personnel involved in the project, or engaging experts in the appropriate field.

4. Develop a Repair Strategy: Based on the root cause analysis, develop a plan to address the construction defect. This may involve selecting a repair method, creating a timeline for the work, and identifying any permits or approvals needed for the project.

5. Communication and Coordination: Effective communication and coordination are essential during remediation efforts. Ensure that all parties involved are aware of the remediation plan and their respective roles and responsibilities.

Methods for Repairing Construction Defects

Various methods for repairing construction defects are available, depending on the type and extent of the defect. Some common repair techniques include:

1. Patching and Sealing: This method involves filling or sealing cracks, gaps, or other defects in a building’s surface to restore its appearance and function. It is often used for minor cosmetic repairs or resolving small water intrusion issues.

2. Replacement: In some cases, the defective component must be entirely replaced to ensure a building’s safety and integrity. For example, replacing a cracked or damaged structural member may be necessary for severe cases.

3. Strengthening and Retrofitting: In cases where a building component’s structural capacity is inadequate, it may be necessary to strengthen or retrofit the component. This can involve adding reinforcement, modifying existing components to improve performance, or using other methods to enhance a building’s structural integrity.

4. Remediation of Environmental Issues: Construction defects can sometimes lead to environmental problems, such as mold growth or soil contamination. In these cases, specialized remediation techniques may be necessary to address the issue and restore a healthy indoor environment.

Cost Estimation and Budgeting for Repairs

Cost estimation and budgeting for repair projects are essential to ensure adequate resources are allocated to address the construction defect. Some factors to consider when estimating repair costs include:

1. Extent of the Defect: The size and scope of the defect will impact the cost of repairs. Large-scale defects or those that require significant structural modifications will typically be more expensive to address.

2. Repair Method: The chosen repair method can also affect the project’s cost. For example, replacement may be more expensive than patching and sealing.

3. Labor Costs: The cost of labor for the repair work will depend on factors such as the complexity of the job, the skill level of the workers required, and the local labor market.

4. Material Costs: Material costs will vary depending on the type of repair and the materials used in the original construction.

5. Contingencies: It is essential to include contingencies in the repair cost estimate to account for potential unforeseen issues that may arise during the project.

Monitoring and Maintenance After Repairs

Once a construction defect has been repaired, ongoing monitoring and maintenance are necessary to ensure the issue does not recur or cause additional problems. Some essential steps to take after repairs include:

1. Inspection: Regular inspections should be conducted to assess the repair’s effectiveness and check for any new defects.

2. Maintenance: Adequate maintenance of the repaired areas and the overall building is crucial in preventing any future issues.

3. Record-Keeping: Maintain detailed records of the repair work, including documentation of the defect, the chosen repair method, and any warranties or guarantees provided by the contractor.

4. Communication: Effective communication with occupants, building managers, and other stakeholders is important to ensure awareness of the repairs and any necessary follow-up actions.

By following these steps, construction defects can be appropriately remediated and repaired, enhancing a building’s safety, functionality, and longevity.

Case Studies on Construction Defects

Construction defects can lead to severe consequences, including safety issues, costly repairs, and legal disputes. Various case studies highlight the importance of understanding the causes, consequences, and solutions related to construction defects. This article examines notable instances of construction defects, lessons learned from past cases, and examples of successful remediation and repair.

Notable Instances of Construction Defects

1. Leaning Tower of Pisa: The Leaning Tower of Pisa in Italy is one of the most famous examples of structural construction defects. The tower’s unstable foundation caused it to tilt over the years, and various stabilization attempts have been made to prevent it from collapsing.

2. Lotus Riverside Complex: In 2009, a residential building in the Lotus Riverside Complex in Shanghai, China, collapsed, killing one worker. The incident was attributed to construction defects in the foundation, inadequate supervision, and illegal modification of the building’s plans.

3. Big Dig Tunnel Collapse: The Big Dig tunnel in Boston, Massachusetts, experienced a fatal ceiling collapse in 2006, killing one person and injuring others. The cause of the defect was traced back to inadequate epoxy adhesive, design failures, and poor construction oversight.

4. Millennium Tower: The Millennium Tower in San Francisco, California, built in 2008, has been sinking and tilting since its completion. The building has faced numerous lawsuits, with construction defects being blamed for the issues.

5. Opal Tower: The Opal Tower in Sydney, Australia, faced serious structural defects just months after its completion in 2018. The 36-story residential building had to be evacuated due to concerns about cracking in the structure.

Lessons Learned from Past Cases

1. Importance of a Solid Foundation: A significant lesson from construction defect cases is the necessity of a properly designed and constructed foundation. This ensures the stability and durability of the structure, avoiding issues such as sinking, tilting, or even collapse.

2. Effective Communication and Collaboration: Effective communication between architects, engineers, builders, and inspectors is essential to prevent construction defects. This ensures that everyone is aware of the project’s goals, plans, and potential issues.

3. Quality Control and Supervision: A key lesson from construction defect cases is the importance of regular inspection and supervision during the construction process. This helps in identifying and addressing any defects promptly, minimizing their potential impact on the project.

4. Compliance with Rules and Regulations: Violating construction codes, making unauthorized changes, or cutting corners during the building process can lead to dangerous and costly defects. Ensuring compliance with construction codes and specifications helps maintain the overall quality and safety of the structure.

5. Early Detection and Remediation: Detecting construction defects early and addressing them quickly reduces the risk of long-term problems, structural failure, and costly repair work. Regular maintenance and inspection can help identify defects before they escalate into major issues.

Successful Remediation and Repair Examples

1. Leaning Tower of Pisa: The tower’s tilt was successfully stabilized through a combination of soil extraction and counterweights. The extraction of soil from beneath the tower reduced the angle of inclination, while the counterweights provided additional support for the structure.

2. Sampoong Department Store: After the catastrophic collapse of the Sampoong Department Store in South Korea in 1995, the country enacted stricter building codes, regulations, and enhanced supervision during the construction process to prevent future disasters.

3. Balcony Collapse in Berkeley, California: Following the tragic balcony collapse in 2015 that killed six people and injured seven others, numerous lawsuits were filed against the builder, architect, and property manager. The balcony’s construction defects were repaired and measures were taken to prevent the recurrence of such incidents. California also passed new building regulations to ensure greater construction quality and safety.

4. Civic Opera Building: The Civic Opera Building in Chicago, Illinois, experienced water infiltration due to a construction defect in the building’s curtain wall system. The issue was identified, and a full-scale investigation and remediation plan was implemented. The defective elements were replaced, and the curtain wall system was repaired and restored to a watertight condition.

By examining various case studies on construction defects, we can gain valuable insights into the potential causes and consequences of these issues. By learning from past mistakes and implementing effective solutions, future construction projects can avoid these pitfalls and ensure the highest standard of quality and safety in the built environment.

Construction Defects FAQs

1. What is a construction defect?

A construction defect refers to a deficiency in the design, materials, workmanship, or system of a building that causes physical damage, loss of economic value, or safety hazards to its occupants (Chen, 2011).

2. What are the main causes of construction defects?

Construction defects may arise due to negligent design or engineering, poor materials, inadequate workmanship, defective inspection, or improper maintenance (Cosgrove et al., 1998).

3. What types of construction defects are commonly encountered?

Common construction defects include water leakage or intrusion, structural failures, improper soil preparation or compaction, thermal or moisture protection issues, and mechanical or electrical system malfunctions (Trauner et al., 2013).

4. How can construction defects be prevented or mitigated?

To prevent construction defects, proper planning and design, quality material selection, competent workmanship, effective communication, and regular inspections should be employed throughout the construction process (Ming & Harty, 2017).

5. When is a construction defect considered “patent” or “latent”?

A patent defect is one that is clearly visible and easily discoverable upon reasonable inspection, while a latent defect remains hidden or concealed and is not discoverable through ordinary inspection (Ashworth, 2017).

6. What legal actions can be taken regarding construction defects?

Legal actions for construction defects may involve civil lawsuits, filing for breach of contract or warranty, negligence, fraud, or claims under the applicable building codes, depending on the specific defect and jurisdiction (Sweet & Schneier, 2017).

References

Ashworth, A. (2017). Quality management systems in construction. Routledge.

Chen, W. F. (2011). Structural engineering handbook. CRC Press.

Cosgrove, J. M., Howell, G., Hawkins, W., & Goldstein, R. (1998). Building pathologies: Diagnosis and mitigation in design and construction. McGraw-Hill.

Ming, S., & Harty, C. (2017). Preventing construction defects through effective communication: A review of causes and mitigation measures. Construction Innovation, 17(3), 336-353.

Sweet, J., & Schneier, M. (2017). Legal aspects of architecture, engineering, and the construction process. Cengage Learning.

Trauner, T., Manginelli, W., Liberatore, D., & Thumann, J. (2013). Construction delays: Understanding them clearly, analyzing them correctly. Butterworth-Heinemann.